In her book Electronic Literature: New Horizons for the Literary, Katherine Hayles highlights the transformative nature of digital literature, where traditional storytelling boundaries are redefined through interactivity, non-linearity, and multimedia. Reflecting on storytelling traditions from my own culture, I find it fascinating how ancient Chinese literary forms, particularly Biji Xiaoshuo (笔记小说) or “notebook fiction,” share similarities with these digital innovations. In this paper, I will explore how Biji Xiaoshuo embodies characteristics akin to modern electronic literature and how these ancient texts might be seen as a precursor to fluid, immersive experiences in new media today. 

Non-Linearity and Reader Freedom in Biji Xiaoshuo 

One of the most striking parallels between Biji Xiaoshuo and electronic literature is their non-linear structure. In notebook fiction, such as the classic Liaozhai Zhiyi (聊斋志异), each story is self-contained, allowing readers to engage with the text at their own pace without following a fixed progression. This flexibility in traditional Chinese literature mirrors modern hypertext practices, where readers navigate links and pathways of their own choosing. 

Pu Songling (1640 – 1715) Notes de l’étrange de Liaozhai

Marie-Laure Ryan’s comparison of print and electronic texts emphasizes the freedom afforded to readers in electronic literature. Biji Xiaoshuo provides a similar experience—readers can pick stories from Liaozhai Zhiyi based on their curiosity rather than an imposed order. This non-linear engagement feels less like a rigid narrative and more like a conversation between text and reader, mirroring the unpredictable paths found in digital literature. 

To me, this non-linear structure is not just a narrative choice but reflects the unpredictability of life. As we move from one moment to another, following our instincts, we mirror the reading experience of Biji Xiaoshuo, allowing us to linger on tales that captivate us. This flexibility resonates deeply with my personal connection to texts that offer readers interpretative freedom. 

Interactivity: The Role of the Reader in Shaping the Text 

 While electronic literature uses technology for interactivity, notebook fiction was also shaped by its audience. Stories were often told aloud, adjusted based on listener reactions. This interactivity parallels the modern reader’s role in electronic literature, where users engage by choosing pathways, altering the story experience. 

 Thinking of Biji Xiaoshuo reminds me of family gatherings where elders shared stories from memory, adjusting them according to the audience’s mood. Though technology now plays a role in modern literature, the principle of reader engagement remains the same in both notebook fiction and digital works—stories are flexible, shaped by the audience. Whether through oral tradition or clickable narratives, the reader influences the outcome. 

Multimedia and Multimodality in Traditional Storytelling 

 Electronic literature integrates multimedia—text, sound, video, and images—to create an immersive experience. Although Biji Xiaoshuo did not have access to modern technology, it incorporated elements like hand-drawn illustrations, poetry, and calligraphy, adding layers of meaning to the written word. The illustrations in works like Liaozhai Zhiyi guided the reader’s imagination and deepened the connection with the text. 

In this sense, Biji Xiaoshuo’s use of illustrations and visual elements can be seen as an early form of multimodality, offering a richer experience to readers. If the authors of Biji Xiaoshuo had access to today’s technology, it is intriguing to consider how they might have further enriched their storytelling with multimedia elements, just as electronic literature does today. 

Pu Songling (1640 – 1715) Notes de l’étrange de Liaozhai

Conclusion 

 The similarities between Biji Xiaoshuo and modern electronic literature go beyond surface-level comparisons. Both share commonalities in narrative structure, reader engagement, and multimodality. As I reflect on these connections, I appreciate how ancient forms like Liaozhai Zhiyi anticipated aspects of new media, bridging traditional storytelling with digital innovation. This reminds us that stories are not just meant to be read but experienced, shaped, and reimagined by those who engage with them.